1.
...Squeaking sand produces sounds with very high frequencies-- between 500 and 2,500 hertz, lasting less than a quarter of a second. The peals are musically
pure, often containing four or five harmonic overtones. Booming sand makes louder, low-frequency sounds of 50 to 300 hertz, which may last as long as 15
minutes in larger dunes (although typically they last for seconds or less). In addition, they are rather noisy, containing a multitude of nearby frequencies. Booms
have never been observed to contain more than one harmonic of the fundamental tone.
These dramatic differences once led to a consensus that although both types of sand produce acoustic emissions, the ways in which they do so must be
substantially different.... In the late 1970s, however, Peter K. Haff, then at the California Institute of Technology, produced squeaks in booming sand, suggesting a
closer connection between the two.
Both kinds of sand must be displaced to make sounds. Walking on some sand, for example, forces the sand underfoot to move down and out, producing squeaks.
In the case of booming sand, displacement occurs during avalanches. It is within the avalanche that sound begins and where the answers must be hiding.
Before an avalanche can occur, winds must build a dune up to a certain angle, usually about 35 degrees for dry desert sand. Once an angle is achieved, the sand
on the leeward side of the dune begins to slump. Intact layers of sand slip over the layers below, like a sheared deck of cards. At the same time, the individual
grains in the upper layers tumble over the grains underneath, momentarily falling into the spaces between them and bouncing out again to continue their downward
journey. Their concerted up- and-down motion is believed to be the secret source of sound. Fully developed avalanches, in which sliding plates of sand remain
intact for most of their motion, have the greatest acoustic output. In some places, where large amounts of sand are involved, booming can be heard up to 10
kilometers away. Because it is caused by large volumes of shearing sand, the roaring is also loud. In fact, sounds made by booming sand can be nearly deafening,
and the vibrations causing them can be so intense that standing in their midst is nearly impossible.
A good place to start in exploring the vibrational properties of sand is with the grains themselves. The mean diameter of most sand grains, whether acoustically
active or not, is about 300 microns. Usually the grains in a booming dune are very similar in size, especially near the leeward crest, where the sound most often
originates; such uniformity allows for more efficient shearing. Otherwise, the smaller grains impede the smooth motion of the larger ones.
Similar sizes do not alone allow sand to boom. On the contrary, the booming sands of Korizo and Gelf Kebib, also in Libya, feature an uncharacteristically broad
range of particle sizes. Moreover, silent dune sand often contains grains somewhat similar to nearby booming sand. Grains of booming sand also tend to have
uncommonly smooth surfaces, with protrusions on the scale of mere microns. Booming dunes are often found at the downwind end of large sand sources; having
bounced and rolled across the desert for long distances, the sand grains in these dunes are usually highly polished. Over time a grain can also be polished by
repeated shifts within a moving dune. And squeaking sand as well tends to be exceptionally smooth.... ...Another important factor is humidity, because moisture
can modify the friction between grains or cause sand to clump together, thus precluding shearing. Sounds occur in those parts of the dune that dry the fastest.
Precipitation may be rare in the desert, but dunes retain water with remarkable efficiency. Sand near the surface dries quickly, however, and sand around a dune's
crest tends to dry the fastest.
Which of the following discoveries would give the most support to the hypothesis that squeaking sand and booming sand differ only in the mechanism by which the
sounds are produced?